Review Paper
INSIGHTS INTO ARTHROPOD PESTS OF Moringa oleifera: EMERGING THREATS AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
M. Duvaraga Devi1, M. Muthuswami1, *, A. Suganthi1, C. Indu Rani2 and N. Manikanda Boopathi3
1Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
2Department of Vegetable Science, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
3Department of Plant Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, Tamil Nadu, India
*Corresponding author’s E-mail: muthuswami.m@tnau.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Moringa, often revered as the "miracle tree," is witnessing a remarkable surge in global demand due to its exceptional nutritional contents and numerous health benefits. The increasing inclination towards natural and sustainable products has significantly enhanced its market appeal, positioning moringa as a highly lucrative crop for both farmers and businesses. Its hardy nature and ability to thrive in diverse climates and soil conditions make moringa an ideal crop for sustainable cultivation. However, its production is imperiled by various insect species. Among the Lepidopterans, the budworm (Noorda moringae) is known to cause flower bud drop, while the leaf-eating caterpillar (N. blitealis) is a major pest responsible for severe defoliation, and the hairy caterpillar (Eupterote mollifera) also poses a threat. Coleopterans, particularly the ash weevil (Myllocerus sp.), also contribute to the defoliation of moringa. Invasive Hemipteran pests, such as the tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii) and the rugose spiraling whitefly (Aleurodicus rugioperculatus), have also been reported to attack moringa. Additionally, other pests like bark borers, aphids, mites, and scales have also been recorded. These pests can inflict substantial yield losses, thereby complicating management practices. The inadequate documentation of moringa insect pests poses a significant challenge in studying their biology, ecology, and management. This review provides a comprehensive insight into the potential insect pest communities affecting moringa, examines current control options, and identifies knowledge gaps. These gaps include insufficient understanding of the biology and ecology of important insect pests, their population dynamics, insecticides used for their management, and the need for fully compatible Integrated Pest Management packages for moringa.
Keywords: Moringa; Insect Pests; IPM; Natural enemies; Insecticides
INTRODUCTION
Moringa oleifera L., (F: Moringaceae) commonly referred to as "drumstick", originates from Northwest India. However, it is also found in various regions worldwide, including South Africa, Northeast Africa, Madagascar, Tropical Asia, Southwest Asia, and Latin America (Anwar et al., 2005). Moringa is a slender, fast-growing, deciduous to semi-evergreen, perennial shrub or small tree that grows to a height of 9 to 15 meters (Anwar et al., 2007). Growing moringa from seeds or stem cuttings depends on factors such as temperature and seed viability. Seeds, sown 2 cm deep, typically germinate within 7 to 20 days, with freshly collected seeds showing higher germination rates (80–90%). Trees from cuttings usually start flowering six to twelve months after planting (Emongor, 2009). The PKM1 variant is recognized as a top moringa variety, primarily cultivated in Tamil Nadu, India (Saravanan, 2000). Moringa adapts to various soils but thrives in well-drained clay or clay loam. Extended waterlogging is detrimental, and deep soils (>1 m) are preferred. Moringa can tolerate a wide pH range, but the ideal pH is 5.5 to 7.0 (Nair et al., 2021). Understanding these cultivation parameters is crucial for successful moringa cultivation, ensuring optimal growth and yield.
Indigenous populations of Africa and northern India are aware of the many health advantages of moringa for millennia. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in the nutritional properties of moringa in non-native countries (Sánchez-Machado et al., 2010). All parts of moringa contain a wealth of significant nutrients and anti-inflammatory nutrients. Moringa leaves are particularly abundant in minerals such as calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, iron, and copper (Biel, 2017). Moringa also contains a range of vitamins, including beta-carotene (a form of vitamin A), vitamin B such as folic acid, pyridoxine, and nicotinic acid, as well as vitamins C, D, and E (Anwar et al., 2007). The rich nutritional profile of moringa has made it a valuable resource for enhancing health and nutrition across diverse populations.
In spite of this, it is frequently utilized as food and spice, notably from its leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers, and oil derived from seeds. It can also be employed as medicine and cattle feed (Emongor, 2009). Cuttings are used for constructing live fences and are also beneficial for windbreaks, soil fertility enhancement, and soil conservation (Nautiyal and Venhataraman, 1987). Rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, moringa leaves have been staple in traditional medicine for treating ailments ranging from digestive disorders to skin infections (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2016). The versatile properties of moringa underscore its significant contributions to health, skincare, and agriculture.
Despite being recognized as a hard crop, moringa is vulnerable to attacks by various insect pests. Several authors have reported various pests affecting moringa worldwide, particularly in India and Africa (Math and Kotikal, 2014; El-Saeady et al., 2017). Given the significance of moringa for its nutritional and medicinal benefits, it is vital to improve moringa cultivation by effectively managing pests. Hence, in response to the limited research and fragmented knowledge on moringa insect pests and their control, this review provides comprehensive insights into the major and emerging pests that damage moringa globally, their impacts, and the available management practices to combat these pests. The goal is to assist future researchers in identifying gaps and devising feasible integrated pest management packages for sustainable and eco-friendly moringa cultivation.
Moringa: Global Export and Distribution: Moringa is grown as a multipurpose crop in over 60 countries (Mridha, 2015). It has become widely established across various tropical regions worldwide (Figure 1). Its presence is documented in Southern and Eastern Asia, Africa, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (Verdcourt,1985), as well as in tropical America, and the Pacific islands (Liogier and Martorell, 2000). Given its extensive establishment in such diverse regions, moringa can be characterized as a highly adaptable species (Trigo et al., 2020).
The Moringa genus encompasses a total of 13 species, namely M. arborea, M. longituba, M. borziana, M. pygmaea, M. hildebrandtii, M. drouhardii, M. peregrina, M. stenopetala, M. rivae, M. ruspoliana, M. ovalifolia, M. concanensis, and the widely recognized M. oleifera (Abd Rani et al., 2018). Among these, M. oleifera stands out as the most recognized, extensively studied, and widely utilized species (Anwar et al., 2005). M. stenopetala, M. peregrina and M. concanensis also possess significant potential comparable to M. oleifera (Arora et al., 2013). Traditionally, leaves of M. oleifera, M. concanensis, and M. stenopetala are consumed, and the tubers of young M. peregrina are sometimes eaten roasted. All other species have local medicinal uses (Olson, 2017).

Figure 1: Distribution of Moringa tree sp. in world countries
A paradigm shift towards adopting natural, nutrient-rich alternatives for health and wellness is reflected in the global surge in demand for moringa. India is the leading producer of moringa, yielding an annual production of 2.2 million tonnes of tender pods from a cultivation area spanning 43,600 hectares, resulting in a productivity of approximately 51 tonnes per hectare (Sekhar et al., 2018). India currently dominates the global market, fulfilling over 80% of the worldwide demand for moringa. Moringa leaf powder, as a dietary supplement, is gaining attention in developed nations (APEDA, 2018).
Pest dynamics: A global overview:Extracts from various components of the moringa plant are used to combat insect pests such as Spodopteralitura (Kaur et al., 2021), stored insect pests such as Sitophiluszeamais, S. oryzae, Callosobruchus maculatus (Oliveira et al., 2020; Okwor et al., 2021), and mites (Heinz-Castro et al., 2021). While moringa extract can be used to combat some pests, the plant itself is also vulnerable to attacks by certain pests (Math and Kotikal., 2014; Joshi et al., 2016; Prasannakumar et al., 2024). Research indicates that 32 insect species belonging to 30 different genera, 22 families, and 9 orders are associated with Moringa oleifera. In this context, insect pests were found to be more prevalent than their predators (El-Saeady et al., 2017). Table 1 lists the key pests of moringa.

Figure 2: Number of publications on potential moringa pests from the year 2003 to 2024
Table 1. List of important insect pests of moringa
Common Name
|
Scientific Name
|
Family
|
Category
|
Distribution
|
Destructive Stage
|
References
|
Lepidoptera
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Budworm
|
Noorda moringae Tams
|
Crambidae
|
Flower bud feeder
|
India, Africa
|
Larvae
|
Cherian and Basheer, 1940; Manikandan and Rengalakshmi, 2024
|
Leaf eating caterpillar
|
Noorda blitealis Walker
|
Crambiade
|
Defoliator
|
India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Niger, China, Nigeria, Ethiopia.
|
Larvae
|
Ratnadass et al., 2010; Math and Kotikal, 2014; Sharjana and Mikunthan, 2018; Zhang et al., 2021; Halilou et al., 2021; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Hairy caterpillars
|
Eupterote mollifera Walker
|
Eupterotidae
|
Defoliator
|
India, Sri Lanka
|
Larvae
|
Sivagami and David, 1968; Sri et al., 2009; Kannan et al., 2018
|
|
Metanastria hyrtaca Cramer
|
Lasiocampidae
|
Defoliator
|
India, South Africa, Sudan
|
Larvae
|
Sivagami and David, 1968
|
|
Streblote siva Lef.
|
Lasiocampidae
|
Defoliator
|
India, Philippines
|
Larvae
|
Sivagami and David, 1968;
Outani et al., 2023; Rajmohana et al., 2024
|
Wooly bear
|
Olepa (=Pericallia) ricini Fabricius
|
Erebidae
|
Defoliator
|
India
|
Larvae
|
Raja et al., 2000
|
Bark borer
|
Indarbela sp. Fletcher
|
Metarbelidae
|
Bark feeder
|
India
|
Larvae
|
Math and Kotikal, 2014
|
Diptera
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pod fly/ Fruit fly
|
Gitona distigma Meigen
|
Drosophilidae
|
Pod feeder
|
India, Africa, Sri Lanka,
|
Maggot
|
Okonkwo et al., 2014; Sharjana and Mikunthan, 2018; Prasannakumar et al., 2024; Manikandan and Rengalakshmi, 2024
|
|
Physiphora aenea Fabricius
|
Ulidiidae
|
Pod feeder
|
India
|
Maggot
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
|
Diarrhegma modestum Fabricius
|
Tephritidae
|
Pod feeder
|
Bangladesh, India
|
Maggot
|
Hancock and Drew, 1994; Hossain and Khan, 2013
|
Bud midge
|
Contarinia
(=Stictodiplosis) moringae Mani
|
Cecidomyiidae
|
Flower bud feeder
|
India
|
Maggot
|
Cherian and Basheer, 1938
|
Coleoptera
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ash weevils
|
Myllocerus sp. Schönherr
|
Curculionidae
|
Defoliator
|
India
|
Grub and Adult
|
Math and Kotikal, 2014; Rajan and Ghosh, 2019; Ramesh et al., 2023; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Long horn beetle
|
Batocera rubus Linnaeus
|
Cerambycidae
|
Stem borer
|
India
|
Grub and adult
|
Reddy et al., 2018; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
|
Batocera rufomaculata DeGeer
|
Cerambycidae
|
Stem borer
|
India
|
Grub and adult
|
Jiji et al., 2016; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Hemiptera
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Aphid
|
Aphis craccivora Koch
|
Aphididae
|
Sap feeder
|
Nigeria, India, Egypt, Hawaii, Pacific Island
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Math and Kotikal, 2014; Okonkwo et al., 2014; El-Saeady et al., 2017
|
|
Aphis loti Kaltenbach
|
Aphididae
|
Sap feeder
|
India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Tea mosquito bug
|
Helopeltis antonii Signoret
|
Miridae
|
Sap feeder
|
India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Mala et al., 2020; Aravinthraju et al., 2023b; Ramesh et al., 2023; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Spiralling white fly
|
Aleurodicus dispersus Russell
|
Aleyrodidae
|
Sap feeder
|
India, Australia
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Lambkin, 1999; Ramani, 2000
|
Rugose spiralling white fly
|
Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin
|
Aleyrodidae
|
Sap feeder
|
India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Dubey and Ko, 2008; Nandhini and Srinivasan, 2023
|
Scale
|
Drepanococcus (=Ceroplastodes) cajani Maskell
|
Coccidae
|
Sap feeder
|
India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Sivagami and David, 1968; Joshi et al., 2016
|
Acari
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Spider mite
|
Tetranychus urticae Koch
|
Tetranychidae
|
Non-insect pest
|
Africa, Philippines, India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Dube et al., 2015; Abdallah et al., 2019; Verghese and Rashmi, 2023
|
|
Tetranychus neocaledonicus Andre
|
Tetranychidae
|
Non-insect pest
|
India
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Kaimal and Ramani, 2007; Ramani, 2008; Briozo et al., 2023; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
|
Tetranychus merganser Boudreaux
|
Tetranychidae
|
Non-insect pest
|
Mexico
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Monjarás-Barrera et al., 2015; López-Bautista et al., 2016
|
|
Oligonychus punicae Hirst
|
Tetranychidae
|
Non-insect pest
|
Mexico
|
Nymph and Adult
|
Vásquez et al., 2008; Monjarás-Barrera et al., 2015; Ferraz et al., 2019; Abo-Elmaged et al., 2021
|
Snail
|
Macularia (=Cepaea) sylvatica Draparnaud
|
Helicidae
|
Non-insect pest
|
Barkino fasa
|
Larva and Adult
|
Dao et al., 2015
|
Emerging insect pest scenario in moringa
Although the occurrence of N. moringae in moringa was documented as early as 1940 (Cherian and Basheer), this pest continues to pose a significant threat in tropical and subtropical climatic regions (Manikandan and Rengalakshmi, 2024). The larvae bores into unopened flowers and the affected buds will dry out and fall off. The larvae pupate in a silken cocoon encased in soil particles. Severe infestations can result in damage, up to 78%. Infested buds tend not to blossom and fall prematurely, and typically, only one caterpillar is found in each infested bud (Cherian and Basheer, 1940). One contributing factor for budworms increasing infestation is the positive correlation between budworm infestation and temperature, alongside a negative correlation with precipitation (Math et al., 2014; Manikandan and Rengalakshmi, 2024). Rising temperatures can accelerate pest development within a season, allowing for multiple generations to be completed in a single year. This, in turn, results in an increased pest density due to reduced exposure to cold stress (Schneider et al., 2022). The lack of research findings (Figure 2) on the biology, and management aspects of budworm is another critical factor contributing to the potential damage this pest could cause in the future.
Gitona distigma has emerged as one of the most serious pests affecting moringa pods. The maggots of G. distigma enter through a bored hole at the terminal end of the pods causing infected pod to become brown, dried, and split from the tip, exposing the fruit's pulp. Brown gummy exudates ooze out, and the pod becomes rotten due to infestation. (Sivagami and David, 1968; Sharjana and Mikunthan, 2018). Unlike budworm, pod fly infestation can be particularly severe during periods of low temperature and high rainfall, with infestation rates ranging from 35.10% to 60.7% (Math and Kotikal, 2014; Manikandan and Rengalakshmi, 2024). Additionally, for the first time, a newly discovered pod fly, P. aenea was identified in India, causing substantial damage ranging from 50% to 80% (Prasannakumar et al., 2024). In the absence of effective management strategies, the infestation of pod flies could result in significant yield losses, given their impact on the economically valuable parts of the moringa plant.
The increasing volume of research on N. blitealis underscores the substantial harm causes to moringa cultivation. Farmers consider N. blitealis as the most significant biotic constraint in moringa cultivation (Halilou et al., 2021). Initially, the caterpillar scraps chlorophyll from the leaves, giving them a papery appearance. As it matures, it consumes entire leaves, leaving only veins. Severe infestations result in complete defoliation. The caterpillar prefers tender leaves in its early stages and mature leaves later on. While previous reports mentioned the caterpillar feeds on moringa leaves, it also damages pods by consuming pulp and seeds, leading to gummy exudation. (Munj et al., 1998; Math and Kotikal, 2014). A survey conducted in the Tamil Nadu district of India found that 68% of moringa crops were affected by N. blitealis (Ramesh et al., 2023). Noorda blitealis infestations have the potential to cause 90-100% yield loss (Halilou et al., 2021; Prasannakumar et al., 2024). Although this pest is known to infests moringa year-round, its population significantly decreases during the rainy season as it is easily washed away (Halilou et al., 2021). Several hairy caterpillars also defoliate moringa. Notably, E. mollifera larvae exhibit a collective feeding behavior, scraping the bark and gnawing on the foliage. In cases of severe infestation, the tree may experience complete defoliation (Butani and Jotwani, 1984).
Myllocerus sp. has already been reported as notorious pest of several ornamental, horticultural, and agro-forestry plants (Josephrajkumar et al., 2011;Paunikar, 2015; Nagesh et al., 2016; George et al., 2019; Rajan and Ghosh, 2019). Although Myllocerus sp. are considered minor pests in moringa (Prasannakumar et al., 2024). A survey conducted in Tamil Nadu, India (Ramesh et al, 2023) revealed that ash weevil infested 54% of moringa cultivation, making it the second most prevalent pest after N. blitealis. Among the Myllocerus species, M. subfasciatus is the most predominant, followed by M. viridanus (Prasannakumar et al., 2024). Adult insects act as defoliators, causing damage by completely removing a plant's foliage. Grubs create holes near the main root tip, consuming internal tissues and forming tunnels as they move upward resulting in the hollowing of the root (Paunikar, 2015). Research on this insect pest's impact on moringa is necessary to prevent it from becoming a major defoliator in moringa cultivation.
Research findings over the past five years indicate Helopeltis antonii infestations in moringa. This pest, originally known for infesting plantations (Asokan et al., 2012), has expanded its host range including moringa (Aravinthraju et al., 2023b). Helopeltis antonii prefers feeding on young twigs, flowers, and occasionally pods, leading to the drying of twigs and flowers. It results in a wilted appearance with honey-like resins oozing from the tree. Infestation occurs at any crop stage but shows a higher preference for older trees, which are more susceptible. Severe damage transforms affected moringa trees into snags, resembling sharp sticks without leaves (Aravinthraju et al., 2023a). In India, H. antonii has attained a major pest status in moringa causing an estimated yield loss of about 20-30% (Prasannakumar et al., 2024).
Aleurodicus rugioperculatus was recently identified as a pest of moringa (Nandhini and Srinivasan, 2023). However, no research findings are currently available regarding its infestation patterns and damage potential on this plant. Tetranychus urticae and T. neocaledonicus have been documented as pests of moringa worldwide (Yousuf and Chouhan, 2009; Kaimal and Ramani, 2007; Okonkwo et al., 2014; Dube et al., 2015; Abdallah et al., 2019), while T. merganser was recorded for the first time on moringa (Monjarás-Barrera et al., 2015). In warm and humid greenhouse environments, M. oleifera seedlings encounter infestations from spider mite, leading to the withering of the seedlings (Dube et al., 2015; Olson, 2017). Tetranychus neocaledonicus, induces the formation of noticeable white spots, resulting in leaf chlorosis on M. oleifera. The affected leaves undergo chlorophyll loss, leading to subsequent drying and shedding (Kaimal and Ramani, 2007).
Secondary insect pests on moringa: Bud midge, Contarinia (=Stictodiplosis) moringae, consumes the internal contents of flower buds, leading to the significant buds shedding in large quantities (Kotikal and Math, 2016). Stem borer, Indarbela sp. though commonly found on various host plants, exhibits a preference for moringa trees as alternate host. The caterpillars feed just beneath the bark, creating zigzag galleries. While they bore inside the burrows during the day, they often emerge at night to feed on the bark. A prominent indicator of their presence is the formation of large silken webbed masses, composed of chewed wooden particles and larval excreta (Saha et al., 2014; Math and Kotikal, 2014). The grubs of long horn beetle, Bactocera rubus creates zigzag burrows under the bark, feeding on internal tissues and potentially reaching the sapwood, which can result in the death of branches or stem. Pupation occurs within these tunnels, with emerging adults feeding on the bark of young twigs and petioles (Reddy et al., 2018; Prasannakumar et al., 2024). Aphis craccivora is identified as one of the foremost prevalent piercing-sucking insects on moringa (El-Saeady et al., 2017). Nymphs and adults extract vital sap from twigs, potentially causing complete devitalization of the entire tree during severe infestations. Given its mainly parthenogenic reproduction, the population proliferates swiftly (Butani and Jotwani, 1984). Ceroplastodes cajani Maskell and various Diaspidiotus species have been reported as scale insects, posing a threat to moringa trees in India (Butani and Jotwani, 1984). The cumulative impact of numerous insects continuously feeding on sap can adversely affect pod size (Joshi et al., 2016; Kotikal and Math, 2016).
Pest surveillance: Monitoring involves the regular scouting of crops after germination to check for signs and symptoms of pests, aiding in making better pest management decision (Bateman et al., 2021). Weekly monitoring can be conducted through pest scouting using various monitoring devices such as pheromone and coloured sticky traps. To fully count every kind of insect in moringa, at least fifteen places at acceptable distances should be inspected in a zigzag pattern that follows a cross-diagonal pattern (DPPQS, 2016). The field will be considered fit for export if insect pests are found to be absent in 95% of the plants (DPPQS, 2016). Information gathered can help prevent pest populations from establishing on a crop and can inform control tactics, particularly targeting early stages (Oyafuso et al., 2002).
Integrated pest management practices for moringa: Globally, a plethora of methodologies have been employed to manage pest infestations and avert yield losses. Integrated Pest Management is the combined use of various compatible components to keep populations of one or more insect pests at threshold levels in an agricultural system while safeguarding humans, animals, plants, and the environment from all harm (FAO, 2022). Initially there was a pronounced dependence on pesticides and insecticides; however, alternative approaches have gained popularity because of their detrimental effects on the environment and human health. These substitutes include insect pests' host selection behavior and preference, biocontrol (Fu et al., 2017), resistant cultivars (Ahmed et al., 2018), botanical extracts (Khater, 2012), and volatile organic substances.
Cultural control: Cultural control entails modifying the environment or management practices to render it less conducive to pests (Rajput et al., 2024). Farmers in Niger have practiced pruning trees to eliminate N. blitealis and employed poultry to forage for caterpillars and chrysalids on the ground (Halilou et al., 2021). Raking the soil beneath the trees or ploughing the infested field is recommended to eliminate puparia which will eventually get exposed (Kamaraj and Manisegaran, 2019). The collection and disposal of damaged buds and caterpillars to reduce further infestations of Noorda sp. (Saha et al., 2014). Collection and destruction of all fallen and damaged fruits to manage pod fly infestation (Outani et al., 2023; Ratnadass et al., 2010). Soil application of Neem cake at the rate of 250kg/ha is effective in managing pod fly (Prasannakumar et al., 2024).
Host plant resistance: Host plant resistance offers numerous benefits over other pest management tactics (Adkisson and Dyck, 1980). Its effect on target pests is consistent and cumulative, and the implementation of resistant varieties is simple and cost-effective for farmers. Additionally, plant resistance is compatible with other methods such as insecticide applications and biological control (Wiseman, 1994; Wilde, 2002) and it reduces the negative environmental impacts associated with insecticides (Wilde, 2002). In moringa, out of 56 genotypic lines, six genotypes M-26, M-63, M-19, M-46, M-54, and M-66 exhibit less than one percent infestation of N. blitealis. This resistance may be attributed to the plant's inherent hardness, toughness, and bitter taste (Chandrakar and Gupta, 2020a). These resilient lines hold significant potential for breeding programs aimed at developing varieties resistant to N. blitealis. In West Africa, the prevalent M. oleifera strains, specifically PKM1 and PKM2, and M. stenopetala variant display significant vulnerability to this pest (Outani et al., 2023). In a study, thirty-eight accessions and hybrids of moringa were evaluated for resistance against G. distigma and ended with the identification of resistant (MT18, MT6, MT28), moderately resistant (H7, H11, H24), and highly susceptible (MT5, M17, M21) accessions to G. distigma (Ragumoorthi et al., 1998). Despite many advantages, the potential of host-plant resistance remains underutilized in many crops (Smith and Clement, 2012; Wilde, 2002). Regrettably, there is currently no single type of moringa that shows resilience against a variety of pests, and research on screening or breeding resistant moringa varieties is still in its infancy.
Mechanical control: Mechanical control refers to measures involving the operation of machinery or manual operations (Sorensen et al., 2016). Light traps at 1-2 /ha are used to attract and destroy adults of nocturnal pests such as adults of N. moringae, N. blitealis, Euproctis sp. of the moringa ecosystem (Saha et al., 2014). Implementation of elevated sitting arrangements for birds above the height of the moringa crop in fields facilitates bird visits and predation. This provision supports natural insect pest control by encouraging birds to perch at advantageous heights, contributing to a balanced ecosystem within the moringa cultivation and utilizing a burning torch to eliminate congregating larvae on the trunk is an effective method to control hairy caterpillars (Joshi et al., 2016). Handpicking of immature stages from the field and destruction helps in preventing further damage (Halilou et al., 2021). Eliminating larvae of bark-eating caterpillars within tunnels involves inserting a sharp metallic probe into the tunnels to kill the larvae. Afterwards, sealing the tunnel entrance with tar or wax helps prevent further infestation and promotes effective pest control in the affected area (Saha et al., 2014).
Biological control: Currently, the use of entomopathogens as biological control agents for numerous insect pests is gaining significant attention due to their reliability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental safety (Wraight et al., 2001). For instance, in moringa, Beauveria bassiana @ 2 g/L was treated against N. blitealis larvae resulting in a 64.29% mortality rate in a laboratory study (Moumouni and Mahamane, 2021). Similarly, several other biopesticides have shown efficacy against moringa pests. A liquid formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis at 2 mL/L has proven to be effective against N. blitealis larvae (Prasannakumar et al., 2024), while a granular form of B. thuringiensis (Delfin) at 0.25 g/L achieved 100% mortality in neonate larvae of E. mollifera (Babu et al., 2003). Furthermore, the application of entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema glaseri, applied at 1000 infective juveniles per 10 mL, showed 83% mortality rate against fourth-instar E. mollifera larvae (Subramaniyan et al., 2005).
In addition to biocontrol agents, plant-based extracts with insecticidal properties are indigenously available and are considered comparatively safe for the environment and public health (Iqbal et al., 2011). Several botanical extracts tested against moringa pests have been enumerated in table 2.
Besides, the moringa ecosystem hosts a diverse array of natural enemies. Among these, spiders are found in substantial numbers on new shoots, where they naturally regulate and control the growing insect pest population (Saha et al., 2014). In a study conducted in the annual moringa ecosystem, 15 spider species were recorded, including Tetragnatha sp., Zygiella indica Tikader and Bal, Neoscona mukerjei Tikader, Larinia chloris (Audowin), Neoscona sp., Clubiona sp., Phintella vittata (Koch.), Thomisus sp., Oliossp., Marpissa sp., Neoscona theisi (Walckenaer), Heteropoda sp., Araneus sp., Oxyopes sp., and Peucetia sp. Additionally, predaceous coccinellids, Cheilomenes sexmaculatas (F.), and Anegleis cardoni (Weise) and three parasitoid species: Mesostenidea sp. Viereck (Ichneumonidae), Clinocentrus sp. (Braconidae), and Cystamastax sp. (Braconidae) were recorded in the same ecosystem (Selvi and Muthukrishnan, 2009). Similarly, in another study, the moringa plant was found to hosts 19 natural enemies, including four insect predators, one parasitoid, one bird, and thirteen species of spiders (Kumari and Kotikal, 2016).
The larval parasites of N. moringae recorded from field include Microbracon brevicornis Wesmmael, Elasmus hybleae Ferriere, Pristomerus spp. (Ichneumonidae), Chelonus spp. (Braconiae), Perilampus spp., Systasis spp. (Chalcidoideae) and Apanteles spp. (Cherian and Basheer 1940).
Table 2. Botanicals tested against moringa pests.
Target pest
|
Botanicals
|
Extract
|
Dosage
|
Reference
|
Noorda blitealis
|
Prosopis juliflora Pongamia pinnata
Neem Seed Kernel Extract
|
Leaf extract
Seed extract
Seed kernel extract
|
5%
|
Rachana et al., 2021
|
Neem oil
|
Leaf extract
Seed kernel
|
2.5g/L
1%
|
Sharjana and Mikunthan, 2019
|
Neem soap
|
Leaves
|
10g/L
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Gitona distigma
|
NSKE
|
Seed kernel extract
|
5%
|
Math et al., 2014
|
Eupterote mollifera
|
NSKE
Neem leaf extract
|
Seed kernel extract Leaf extract
|
5%
5%
|
Kannan et al., 2018
|
Vitex negundo
|
Leaf extract
|
-
|
Ramamurthy et al., 2012
|
Aphis craccivora
|
Neem oil
|
Seed kernel
|
2.5 mL/L
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Helopeltis antonii
|
Neem soap
|
Leaves
|
10 g/L
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
|
NSKE
|
Seed kernel extract
|
5%
|
Dutta et al., 2013
|
Tetranychus neocaledonicus
|
Cassia alata
|
Leaf methanol extract
|
3%
|
Roy et al., 2011
|
Chemical control: In developing nations, farmers primarily rely on conventional practices to manage insect pests affecting vegetable crops, which involves the extensive use of synthetic, persistant agrochemicals (Chagnon et al., 2015; Halilou et al., 2021). Among moringa cultivators in India, the organophosphorus compound, monocrotophos has been commonly employed to address pest problems, despite its prohibition on vegetable crops (Ramesh et al., 2023). However, the indiscriminate application of persistent pesticides has led to various issues, including development of insecticide-resistant pests, destruction of beneficial organisms, resurgence of secondary and invasive pest species, and significant environmental pollution (Edwards, 2013).
Experimental studies on the use of novel insecticides for combating moringa pests are reviewed here, excluding banned chemicals (Table 3). Nevertheless, there is a conspicuous lack of information regarding pesticide residue in moringa. Moreover, there is currently no standard recommended practice for insecticide application listed by the Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee (CIB & RC) for moringa, nor a Maximum Residue Level (MRL) reference available. Given the consumption of moringa for their fresh leaves, employing plant protection strategies becomes imperative to minimize pesticide residues. Consequently, further research in this area is essential before making recommendations.
Table 3. Insecticides used against moringa pests
Target pest
|
Insecticide
|
Dosage
|
Mode of Action
|
Mode of application
|
Reference
|
Noorda blitealis
|
Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC
|
0.15 mL/L
|
Nerve and muscle action
|
Foliar spray
|
Rachana et al., 2021
|
Spinosad 45 SC
|
0.1-0.3 mL/L
|
Nerve action
|
Foliar spray
|
Rachana et al., 2021; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Indoxacarb 15.8 EC
Emamectin benzoate 5 SG
|
0.3 mL/L
0.2- 0.25 g/L
|
Nerve action Nerve and muscle action
|
Foliar spray
|
Kumari et al., 2015; Rachana et al., 2021
|
Gitona distigma
|
Thiamethoxam 25 WG
|
200 g a.i./ha
|
Nerve action
|
Soil application
|
Selvi and Muthukrishnan, 2009
|
Spinosad 45 SC
|
56 g a.i./ha (or) 0.2-0.3 mL/L
|
Nerve action
|
Foliar spray
|
Selvi and Muthukrishnan, 2009; Math et al., 2014; Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Profenofos 50 EC
|
250 g a.i./ha (or) 1.0 mL/L
|
Nerve action
|
Foliar spray
|
Selvi and Muthukrishnan, 2009; Math et al., 2014
|
Emamectin benzoate 5 SG
|
0.25 g/L
|
Nerve and muscle action
|
Foliar spray
|
Math et al., 2014; Saha et al., 2014
|
Eupterote
mollifera
|
Quinalphos 25 EC
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
|
1.0 L in 500 -750 L of water per ha
|
Nerve action
|
Trunk and Foliage
|
Saha et al., 2014
|
Helopeltis
antonii
|
Lamda cyhalothrin 5 EC
Spinosad 45 SC
Fipronil 5 SC
|
0.6 mL/L
0.3 mL/L
1.0 mL/L
|
Nerve action
|
Foliar spray
|
Prasannakumar et al., 2024
|
Conclusion and Future prospects: Despite the global cultivation and increasing demand for moringa, research on its pests remains limited. This review highlights the vulnerability of moringa to a wide range of insect pests, with significant damage reported globally. Notably, N. moringae, G. distigma, N. blitealis, E. mollifera, Myllocerus sp., and sucking pests such as H. antonii and mite complex, pose significant threats to moringa cultivation. As the cultivation area expands, pest-related issues are becoming more prevalent, underscoring the urgent need for comprehensive research on protection of moringa. Current studies are inadequate to fully comprehend the distribution and severity of these pests. While research efforts have primarily focused on N. blitealis, other pests such as G. distigma, N. moringae, and Myllocerus sp., that cause significant yield loss have been largely overlooked. Additionally, insect pests like H. antonii and A. rugioperculatus have been recorded in moringa, necessitating further research on their biology, population dynamics and preventive measures to curb their spread. Mite complex also warrants thorough investigation to prevent population surges due to changing climatic conditions. Research gaps persist in understanding the distribution and severity of these pests as well as the impact of changing climatic factors.
A particular concern is the reliance on persistent chemicals such as organophosphates for managing moringa pests. Suitable recommendations for novel, less persistent insecticides, including application rates and specific action threshold levels, still need to be determined and tailored to specific pest species. The threshold level of each insect damaging moringa should be developed as this is the main concern in the pest management. Furthermore, there is a critical need for studies on insecticide residue levels in moringa, especially given the economic importance of its leaves. Priorities should include developing pest-resistant cultivars, exploring suitable biopesticides, and establishing Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs). Overall, proactive and Integrated Pest Management approaches are essential to mitigate the impact of pests on moringa cultivation and ensure its long-term sustainability.
CRediT Authorship Contribution Statement: The conceptualization was performed by DDM and MM. The draft of the manuscript was written by MDD and AS. Review and editing were performed by MDD and AS. CIR and NMB supervised the review process. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
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